​Freshwater mussels are an unassuming group of animals. They look more like rocks at first glance; they cannot possibly be all that interesting. Let us take a closer look.
​
Freshwater mussels are mollusks, the phylum that includes other bivalves (think oyster, clams, scallops, etc.), gastropods (snails and slugs) and even the cephalopods (octopus and nautilus). The is the second largest animal phylum, second to only to Arthropoda (insects). What relates all mollusks to one another is the presence of the mantle, the dorsal (or back) covering of the animal which encloses all its insides (the visceral mass). In the snails and bivalves, the mantel secretes calcium carbonate to form their characteristic shells. In the cephalopods the mantle also creates the siphon, a body part that cephalopods use to move around. It propels their body through the sea. In the snails and bivalves, the siphon is used to aid in respiration (breathing), In freshwater mussels and other bivalves, the siphon is involved in a number of tasks including filtering food, removing excretion and even reproduction.

​Freshwater mussels in the order Unionidae are one of the few taxa that have their highest diversity in temperate areas. Other taxa that also have their highest species diversity in temperate zones include salamanders and freshwater turtles, while most other taxa have the highest species diversity in tropical regions. In fact, North America has the highest number of Unionid mussels with nearly 300 species.  These mussels are adapted to living in rivers and lakes, and they play a huge role in maintaining the health of these ecosystems. Mussels filter out material in the water and deposit it as waste, which can be used by other critters as a source of food, thereby cleaning the water. Mussels bury into the river substrate which can stabilize the river bottom, and thereby maintain river or stream habitat for other species. They are also a source of food for native wildlife and have cultural significance to Native American communities. They were also of commercial use in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s as a source of material for making buttons, a multi-million dollar industry at the time.

OK, so far mollusks and the mussel seem like a nice group, rather more diverse that you would have thought. That is pretty neat that they are most diverse in North America, you can’t say that about most other North American taxa (except salamanders and turtles). Anything else I should add?

Well, they have some funny common names.
​
Here are some we came across in a river here in Mid-Missouri one day during field work.

Others are named elephantear, fawnsfoot, monkeyface, heelsplitter, fat mucket and spectaclecase...you get the idea, mussels have funny names.  Malacologists (folks who study mussels) must think themselves to be very funny.

I also came across some freshwater mussels during a seiche on Lake Erie several years ago, The seiche caused the water level near Toledo to drop quickly, so we went out to look for mussels, because according to my friend that is what you do on a cold, windy day in November.

​A funny looking animal with a funny name, how quaint. Oh, did I mention that many freshwater mussel species are parasitic. Yes! The larva (also called glochidia) latch onto the gills of host animals, usually fish. That fish is than infected with thousands of tiny baby mussels finding purchase onto the fish’s gills, feeding off the host’s nutrients for a few weeks before dropping off, finding their own little plot of river sediment, and becoming an adult mussel filtering water to find its food. Yikes, that is crazy! Check out the two diagrams below that demonstrate the freshwater mussel lifecycle. They show the same process, I just could not decide which one I liked most.  

So…uh…how do these little, tiny baby mussels find the correct fish or host to latch onto to complete its lifecycle?

Leave it to the mother. Females of many freshwater mussel species have elaborate lures as part of their mantle, in some cases these lures mimic or look like a fish. By moving the lure, the mantle fish appears to move, like that of a normal fish, or perhaps a tasty worm. Other larger predatory fish decide to take a closer look, thinking they have found some tasty food, and then BAM! The female mussel might grab the fish and cover the fish with its little larvae like the Snuffbox mussel, or it might just spit out its larvae in the poor unsuspecting fish’s face like some of the muckets. Check out the videos! 

Natural Fish Lure | Lampsilis Mussel and Bass - Bing video
Snuffbox captures logperch - YouTube
Darter capture by Epioblasma capsaeformis - YouTube
​

​Many species of mussels are very specific about what species they use a a host for their larvae (or glochidia), others are more general and will use a number of different hosts. One mussel even uses salamanders (mudpuppies) as a host.

​And for the nerdy geeky genetic types out there, another cool thing about freshwater mussels, most species have double uniparental inheritance of their mitochondrial genome. That means there are two types of mitochondrial genomes rather than just one, a female type that is found in the body tissue of both male and female mussels as well as the gonads of female mussels, and a male mitotype that is found in the gonads of male mussels. Current research is investigating whether the proteins these different genomes produce may play a part in sex determination in Unionids. Interestingly a majority of the Unionid taxa have this inheritance system and also have separate sexes. However, a few Unionid species are hermaphroditic, with one individual having both male and female  reproductive organs. This double uniparental inheritance might be the first case in animals of sex determination being linked to differences in mitochondrial genomes. Frontiers | Putative Mitochondrial Sex Determination in the Bivalvia: Insights From a Hybrid Transcriptome Assembly in Freshwater Mussels | Genetics (frontiersin.org)

This is all cool and great, but as a reminder approximately 70 % of the unionid mussels in North America are threatened with extinction and as a group freshwater mussels are the most endangered taxon in the United States. So if you ever come across one while floating or playing on the river, consider their incredible unique biology, and give them a little respect.
​
References:
USFWS: America's Mussels
Freshwater Mussels | Missouri Department of Conservation (mo.gov)
 
 

​Western Black Rat Snake (Pantherophis obsoletus)

Fall is a time for berries and brightly colored leaves, a time for birds migrating south, and as I mentioned in September’s post it is also a time for snakes. Here in Mid-Missouri November might be a little too late for much snake activity, most are burrowed or hunkering down to hibernate (or brumate) over winter. But in early fall snakes can often be encountered on park trails as they search for a good place to spend the winter, and this western black rat snake was found back in October. Yes, this is a black rat snake, but this is the juvenile. Adults are shiny and black with a light belly, whereas the juveniles are grayish- tan and have a pattern of blotches going down their back and sides. The juveniles also have a distinctive, black band that goes across their eyes and down to their mouths as you can see in this picture.  

Black rat snakes are one of Missouri’s larger snake species, reaching 3.5 to 6 feet in length. They belong to the family Colubridae which is mostly composed of constrictors, snakes that constrict to subdue their prey before consuming. Black rat snakes are not venomous, venom is another method for subduing prey…remember snakes do not have limbs to take down their prey, so they rely on these other methods. Interestingly other constrictors snake like boas (in the family Boidae) are believed to be able to respond to their prey’s heartbeat, allowing them to know when to apply more pressure and when to stop constricting. Mind blown!
Snake modulates constriction in response to prey's heartbeat (nih.gov)
​
Anyways, many people like rat snakes, as they are good at keeping down small rodent populations. Unfortunately, when it comes to the juveniles, people often mistake them for copperhead snakes or rattlesnakes, which are venomous, and want to get rid of them. It irks me to no end and is really frustrating when people so quickly jump to an identification and especially an incorrect one. However, I have been called out for ridiculing a friend of mine once for not knowing the difference between two bird species, to me they were obviously very different….but why should she know the difference? Now I bite my tongue and try to be less judge-y myself. But still the question exists….why would people think this little guy is a copperhead?

There are many great resources for distinguishing a venomous snakes from non-venomous snakes in North America. In fact, this site has a nice set of pictures showing juvenile snakes of the racer, rat snake, and a copperhead.
How NOT to Identify a Venomous Snake | by Micha Petty | The Natural World | Medium

Note the copperhead juvenile has a different splotchy pattern (the Hershey kiss pattern), and they also have bright – almost neon-yellow tipped tails and rat snakes do not. The head shape is also different, but head shape…like many other traits…can be deceiving, as many non-venomous snakes will flatten their head making it look broader and more triangular, like that head of a copperhead. Rat snakes will also shake their tails, which when it is in the leaf litter might make it get mistaken for a rattle snake, but rat snakes do not have rattles like rattlesnakes. So let’s all try to be a little less judge-y and quick to react. If you see snake here in the US, chances are it is non-venomous…and regardless of whether you come across a venomous or non-venomous snake…..if you do not want to be near one….just walk away.

Some folks may wonder how I can tell apart these animals and snakes so easily…it comes down to practice, the more you look and study them, the more it will become evident how different these two snakes really are. And as this article explains…repetition is key to being able to readily identify species. There are lots of resources online and also Facebook has some very good snake identification pages, a community of people helping to identify snakes that people send pictures of, these sites are educational, and the moderators are really good at trying to keep everyone civil and ensure that no one is afraid to ask questions. I have been really impressed with the page, and have noticed several people mention that they were once deathly afraid of snakes, or once had the philosophy of the only good snake is a dead snake, until spending time on the snake identification FB page, where they learned a great deal and are no longer themselves so quick to judge.

​Education is key which reminds me of one of my favorite quotes:
“In the end, we will conserve only what we love; we will love only what we understand and we will understand only what we are taught.”

― Baba Dioum
 
Happy Snake ID’ing

Native Plant Fall Color

Fall is a time for vibrant oranges, yellows and reds as the leaves turn colors. But fall is also the time of colorful berries. These are eaten by wildlife as they are either migrating down south or preparing to tuck in for the chilly winter.
​
Two plants that produce beautiful berries in the fall are the Spicebush (Lindera benzoin) and the American Beautyberry (Callicarpa americana).

​First, the Spicebush is a medium to large sized native shrub that can get 12 feet in height and is found in the eastern half of North America, from New England through Texas. They do well in full sun and partial shade. They have lovely yellow foliage in the fall, but what really stands out….if you are lucky to have a female shrub, are the bright red berries they produce. In order to get berries, however you also need a male shrub, Spicebush are dioecious meaning separate plants have separate reproductive parts, so if you are interested in getting the berries that are only produced on a female shrub, you need to have a male one near-by. The berries are produced by the pollination of the female flowers by the male flowers. Flowers are  small and yellow and  bloom in early spring. The berries than slowly develop and ripen in the fall, just in time for hungry birds to munch on them….and disperse the seeds. One other interesting fact is that the spicebush is a host plant for the spicebush butterflies. So you might find the caterpillars munching on their leaves in the summer.

​Make sure you do not confuse the Spicebush for this shrub that also produces bright red berries, this is the invasive bush honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii). This species of plant takes over native plant communities, as can be seen in any Midwest neighborhood. The predominant green shrub is likely the bush honeysuckle. It can be easily recognized in early spring as it is often the first shrub to leaf out in spring and stays green later in the fall than most native shrubs. It outcompetes and shades out native species, reducing plant diversity

​The second native plant I am highlighting is the American Beautyberry (Callicarpa americana). It  is a smaller sized bush growing 5 t o 8 feet high. It is found in the southeastern part of the United States and Northern Mexico. They leaf out in late spring and have small inconspicuous violet or white flowers. The flowers then develop into the bright purple clusters of berries seen later in summer through the fall. Unlike the spicebush, the American beautyberry is monoecious meaning one plant contains flowers with both sex reproductive parts, so to get the pretty berries, you only need one plant. These berries are used by songbirds and other wildlife for food. In the fall the leaves turn a lime green to yellow. 

References:

USDA Plants Database
Lindera benzoin (Northern Spicebush, Spicebush, Spice Bush) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox (ncsu.edu)
Spicebush - Grow Native!
American Beautyberry - Grow Native!
Bush Honeysuckle (missouribotanicalgarden.org)
​

 
September and October are good times to see snakes, as they begin to move around more looking for a place to over-winter. Furthermore, most snakes (at least in temperate areas) are born in spring and summer, so fall brings with it a flush of new slithering sweeties.

Ring-necked snakes prefer wooded areas, and are very common in Mid-Missouri where I live, even being found in our neighborhood. I often find several throughout the year. 
 
The ring-necked snake (Diadophis puncatus) is a pretty little snake and one of my favorite. They are small and slender, only getting about 10 to 15 inches long. Many people often mistaken them for baby snakes, but babies of this species (hatchlings) are only about 4 inches in length. Their coloration is generally a gray body though they can also be almost black to tannish in color, with an orangish to yellowish belly, and a similarly colored band or ring around its neck. Sometimes the coloration of the underside gets darker nearer the tail. The belly can also have small black spots down the length. There is geographic variation on the completeness of the ring across this species’ range. Depending on location, the ring can be complete, broken or even absent.

This species has a large geographic distribution being found throughout eastern and central North America from Quebec and Ontario in Canada down to south central parts of Mexico. Given its extensive distribution it is not surprising that  there are  several subspecies recognized.
  
Ring-necked snakes feed on worms, slugs and other soft bodied invertebrates as well as small frogs and lizards. They have a mild venom that can be found in their saliva that helps subdue their prey for easier swallowing and digesting. The venom is harmless to humans and pets. In fact, venom actually evolved in snakes as a way for them to safely subdue, consume and digest its prey (snakes do not have hands or talons to help them kill their prey). Venom did not evolve as a means for biting and hurting humans as some people may believe. The other method for subduing prey in snakes is constricting. Many snakes that rely on constricting are also non-venomous, and these non-venomous species are much more numerous than venomous ones, so you are more than likely to come across a non-venomous snake. Interestingly venom evolved independently in several different groups of snakes, so venomous snakes are not necessarily closely related to one another.
 
Besides needing to find and handle their food, snakes also need to prevent themselves from becoming food. Snakes have a variety of behaviors and methods for avoiding be predated upon. Most of the time snakes will try to flee or hide, when they are caught off guard they try other tactics. One of my favorites is that of the hognose snakes, which will go belly up and play dead. Some rat snakes will shake their tail, even though they do not have rattles like rattlesnakes. Perhaps this is mimics the rattle of a rattlesnake, or at least create a sound disturbance that might distract the predator. A defensive posture of the ring-necked snake is to coil and flip its tail upside down exposing the brightly colored underside, perhaps as a way to deter a would-be predator. They will also release a bad smelling musk, especially if handled. 

So if  you are afraid of snakes and come across one, remember it would much rather not be around you anymore than perhaps you want it to be around you, mutual dislike. However, if you are keen to see snakes, the ring-necked snake is a beauty.

Pretty little snake

Notice the brightly colored belly of the snake, and this individual has black spots running down its belly as well. The spots can be present or absent in this species.

Ring-necked snake in its defensive posture, showing me the brightly colored underside of its tail.

The two of us, both showing off our rings.

​This tropical, hibiscus looking flower is actually native to Missouri and parts of the Midwest and southern U.S.. In fact it is a hibiscus, specifically (Hibiscus lasiocarpos), and it belongs in the plant family Malvacea with over 4000 species, including plants such as cotton, okra, cacao, durian, baobabs and hollyhocks. The marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) is in fact a plant native to Europe and north Africa, and its sap was used to create the sweet treat …marshmallows. Today, marshmallow candies are no longer made with the sap from the plant, and instead gelatin is used in its place.

​Back to the Rose Mallow (Hibiscus lasiocarpos), this plant is a tall (3 to 7 feet) woody stemmed, perennial plant (meaning it will come back year after year). The five-petaled flowers can be quite large (6 inches). Blooms are either white or pink with a dark mauve/ wine colored center. They bloom later in the season between July through October. The leaves are heart or arrow shaped and are covered by soft velvety hairs. They prefer full sun and moist soil.

 They are an important source of nectar and pollen for bees and other insects. Check out this video to see how much pollen bees can get from these flowers (Severn Rose Mallow - YouTube). You might even find a bee specialist, the Rose-mallow bee, (Ptilothrix bombiformis). Females of this species use the pollen from this flower to feed its young. Males of the species can often be found hanging out in the open blossoms waiting for a female to come by. Females will then build a nest to lay her eggs on a ball of pollen that she makes from the Rose Mallow pollen she collects. The young will feed off of this pollen until they are ready to emerge from the nest and continue the cycle.

I found a male last year hiding in my Rose Mallow. As I got closer to it, it did push-ups at me, I assume it was a “get away from my flower” dance, perhaps a way to intimidate other would be male, rose mallow bees from interfering with his digs. 

References:
​Rose-mallow Bee (Ptilothrix bombiformis) (fs.fed.us)
 
Severn Rose Mallow - YouTube
​

This post was written for last year, but got lost somehow so I am re-posting it.

​​July is almost over so I better write up a post.
 
For this post I will be talking a bit about a few insects that I have found in my backyard. Summer is the height of insect activity.
The theme for this post is cool insect communication interactions.
Communication? Insects interact? What?

I have a sunflower growing in my front yard, it is huge, over 8 feet tall. Scurrying across the underside of  its ginormous leaves are these large ants. The ants as you see in the picture are walking amongst smaller insects that cover the underside of the leaf. These ants are tending the treehoppers (the smaller insects which belong to the family Membracidae). The ants are basically farming or ranching the treehoppers for the honeydew that the treehoppers exude. The treehoppers feed off of the juices found in the plant. They then excrete honeydew which is sugary waste water that the insects do not need, but the ants find rather tasty. So the ants tend to these treehoppers, providing protection for the treehoppers against predators while also getting a tasty, energy laden snack for themselves. A similar association or relationship is also found between ants and aphids.

Treehoppers are known for communicating amongst themselves using vibrational signals. They vibrate their abdomen against the leaf or stem of a plant and this signal is transmitted though the plant to a receiver (another treehopper). In this manner they can communicate to their offspring if predators are nearby or signal in search of a mate. They can even communicate to the tending ants if a predator is attacking them. The ants can then chase away the predator. 
 
Talking about communication and signals, this video is of a conehead katydid calling for a mate. These are common throughout the Midwest US. This specific one is the Nebraska conehead katydid (Neoconocephalus nebracensis).  Their calls can be heard all night along grassy roadside ditches and in field or …in this case...backyards. Conehead katydids like other katydid species (family Tettigoniidae) make their calls by rubbing their wings together. Crickets (family Grillidae) also call or chirp by rubbing their wings together. Similar to crickets and katydids are grasshoppers. Most commonly seen are the short-horned grashoppers (Family Accrididae), which are generally more robust in appearance then crickets or katydids and have shorter antennae. They call by either rubbing their wings or wings and hindlegs together. You will often see these during the day jumping and flying close to the ground. You might hear them first as their wings make noise when flying and some have brightly colored wings.
​
Many conehead katydids have a continuous call, one long uninterrupted buzz, but the Nebraska conehead has a discontinuous call, with short phrases interspersed with silence. Listen to my recording here   https://youtu.be/vqJHyrVd9W4

Males in a chorus of this species will synchronize their calls with their neighbors. 
http://songsofinsects.com/
 

July is almost over so I better write up a post.
 
For this post I will be talking a bit about a few insects that I have found in my backyard. Summer is the height of insect activity.

The theme for this post is cool insect communication interactions.
Communication? Insects interact? What?

I have a sunflower growing in my front yard, it is huge, over 8 feet tall. Scurrying across the underside of  its ginormous leaves are these large ants. The ants as you see in the picture are walking amongst smaller insects that cover the underside of the leaf. These ants are tending the treehoppers (the smaller insects which belong to the family Membracidae). The ants are basically farming or ranching the treehoppers for the honeydew that the treehoppers exude. The treehoppers feed off of the juices found in the plant. They then excrete honeydew which is sugary waste water that the insects do not need, but the ants find rather tasty. So the ants tend to these treehoppers, providing protection for the treehoppers against predators while also getting a tasty, energy laden snack for themselves. A similar association or relationship is also found between ants and aphids.

Treehoppers are known for communicating amongst themselves using vibrational signals. They vibrate their abdomen against the leaf or stem of a plant and this signal is transmitted though the plant to a receiver (another treehopper). In this manner they can communicate to their offspring if predators are nearby or signal in search of a mate. They can even communicate to the tending ants if a predator is attacking them. The ants can then chase away the predator. (Leaf hopper and gecko?)
 
Talking about communication and signals, this video is of a conehead katydid calling for a mate. These are common throughout the Midwest US. This specific one is the Nebraska conehead katydid (Neoconocephalus nebracensis).  Their calls can be heard all night along grassy roadside ditches and in field or …in this case...backyards. Conehead katydids like other katydid species (family Tettigoniidae) make their calls by rubbing their wings together. Crickets (family Grillidae) also call or chirp by rubbing their wings together. Similar to crickets and katydids are grasshoppers. Most commonly seen are the short-horned grashoppers (Family Accrididae), which are generally more robust in appearance then crickets or katydids and have shorter antennae. They call by either rubbing their wings or wings and hindlegs together. You will often see these during the day jumping and flying close to the ground. You might hear them first as their wings make noise when flying and some have brightly colored wings.
​
Many conehead katydids have a continuous call, one long uninterrupted buzz, but the Nebraska conehead has a discontinuous call, with short phrases interspersed with silence. July 2020 Neoconocephalus nebracensis - YouTube. Males in a chorus of this species will synchronize their calls with their neighbors. 
http://songsofinsects.com/

Leafhopper on  sunflower leaf

Conehead katydid

 Poison Ivy

I do not remember ever getting a poison ivy rash when I was younger. Maybe I never was exposed, maybe I never really got into the woods, I certainly never learned to identify it ….but the past few years I have developed an allergic reaction to posion ivy AND have quickly learned to identify it.

Eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) and western poison ivy (Toxicodendron rydbergii)  are native to North America.  Other familiar species that belong to the same genus include: poison oak (not really an oak) and poison sumac. These species all belong to the family Anacardiaceae (the cashew or sumac family). Many members of this family contain the oil urushiol which is the cause for the itchy, blistery rash when you come into contact with poison ivy. Other important members of this family include mango, cashew, pistachio and the Marula tree of South Africa. Mangos and cashews can also contain urushiol oil and can cause contact dermatitis if the skin of the fruit is touched. The cashew nut’s shell contains urushiol oil as well, which is why cashews are sold unshelled. 
​
Urushiol oil from poison ivy can get on clothing, gloves, and gardening tools. If those do not get washed off the oil can then transfer to you, leading to an allergic reaction. The best advice is to immediately wash with warm water and soap any clothing or equipment and skin that may have come into contact with the plant. Do not burn poison ivy, as the oil will be carried in the air on smoke particulates and if inhaled can cause a severe allergic reaction. Many other animals do not seem to have the same reaction to the oil, and in fact the leaves and berries of poison ivy are food for many.

I got a pretty, nasty poison ivy rash on both arms last year that I attribute to my dog having picked up the oil and me hugging her. I make this assumption because I am pretty sure I was not hugging a pile of poison ivy and could not figure out how else I would have gotten that pattern of a rash.

So how to identify poison ivy in order to avoid it? The old saying goes: Leaves of three let it be. This is perhaps the safest way to avoid touching it, but then a lot of plants have 3 leaves.  Phenologically poison ivy is highly variable. Eastern poison ivy is found in most of the eastern half of the US, ranging a bit into the southwest. It is a vine forming plant, often recognized by its hairy roots that are used to help it attach to and climb up objects ( see pictures below). Western poison ivy is found in the western Uas well as portions of the Midwest and eastern US. It grows more as a bush, rather than a vine. As a bush it can grow up to 6 feet in length and as a vine it can reach 150 feet.
 
Poison ivy I think can be best identified by looking at the pattern of the 3 leaflets. The middle leaflet has a long stem from the main branch and the other 2 leaflets look more like they come straight out of the stem. Also the 1st and 3rd leaflets are directly opposite of one another.
 
The sites below have some helpful diagrams and more information on how to ID poison ivy.
Eastern Poison Ivy (poison-ivy.org)
Western Poison Ivy (poison-ivy.org)
Western Poison-ivy (fs.fed.us)

​Over the past few years, there has been more and more information coming out on the decline of insect populations. Of particular interest, monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), known for their incredible migration of up to 3,000 miles (Monarch Butterfly Migration and Overwintering (fs.fed.us)). In general, a major reason of species declines is loss of habitat, and for monarchs a large portion of that is loss of its host plant, milkweed.

​Plants of the genus (Asclepias) are called milkweeds and are named for their sticky, white, latex  sap that you will quickly notice after cutting a stem or leaf. This sap contains a cardiac glycoside which can act as a toxin in high doses. This toxic effect can act to prevent predation and browsing on milkweed plants; however, some animals (such as the monarch caterpillars) actually feed off these plants and have the ability to store or sequester the glycosides without harming themselves. These stored toxins in turn make the caterpillar and butterflies toxic or at least very bad tasting to potential predators such as birds.

​Although the relationship with monarchs and milkweed is fascinating, I think one of the most remarkable traits of milkweeds is their flowers. I have always been amazed by their beauty and structural intricacy. I have found a quote on a couple of websites that say the complex structure of milkweed flowers is second only to orchids. Now I cannot find a citation to this claim and I am not a floral morphologist, so I cannot really say anything about this, but they are pretty.  They can also be very fragrant, and different species have different colorations, including white, green, purple, pink, orange, yellows and reds. Once pollinated these flowers then turn into elongated fruits or pods, containing seeds. Milkweed seeds are attached to silky, white filaments or hairs that get blown and moved by the wind.

​In my yard I have started growing a few species native to the area.

​Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). This one has broad oval shaped leaves with clusters of flowers forming balls, light purplish in color. Having planted this one in my front yard, I now know why this plant has the name weed in it…..be careful where you plant these becase one you have it in your yard it will sprout everywhere. They spread with rhizomatous roots, new shoots pop up everywhere. This might be better planted in an area that you do not mind getting overgrown. 

​Butterfly milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa) has more slender leaves compared to the common milkweed, with bright orange flowers. Apparently, they contain less of the glycosides compared to other milkweed species and are thus not used as much by the monarch butterflies as a host plant to lay their eggs on; but they will still feed off the nectar. These do not spread as aggressively as the common milkweed. 

​​Swamp Milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) as shown above, has bunches of pink to mauvish flowers (photo on left), however; some plants have white flowers (photo on right). This species does well in wet, dense soils like clay…which I have a lot of. 

​There are over 73 species in the United States with a huge diversity in flower coloration and well as habitat preferences. I think if I were a botanist this would be the group I would study.

​It may come as a surprise or is not something you regularly think about, but milkweeds, though native to North America are also native to other parts of the world including Africa. This milkweed plant above is one I spotted on the side of the road when I traveled to Madagascar. I immediately knew it was a milkweed, because of the large seed pods that looked like… well milkweed seed pods I had seen back home. In fact there is a species of butterfly (Danaus chrysippus) ​related to the North American monarch butterflies that feed and lay eggs on this milkweed. During my visit to Madagascar I also came across this incredible insect, the rainbow locust ( genus Phymateus), their bright colors like that of the monarch…..Although in the photo here they are not feeding on milkweed but on another plant. Nevertheless they are known to feed off of milkweed and like monarch caterpillars store the toxins (Monarchs and Milkweed in Madagascar – Insects on Plants, Chemical Ecology, and Coevolution (cornell.edu)). Our guide mentioned that the plant they are feeding on in this photo is also extremely toxic.

Now I have come across some websites that mention you can eat milkweed, and many of friends will cry foul and say but its toxic, you cannot eat it! And indeed it is toxic, but toxic effects on the body depends on the amount consumed. The concentration or amount of toxins in an individual plant depends on the age and species. Regardless, I would not recommend trying to eat some, personally I am plenty happy with my vegetable garden or what I find in the stores. Interestingly, the amount of toxins from a plant that gets consumed can also depend on how you prepare or cook the plant.  In fact when I lived in West Africa there was a cheese (Wagasi) made by the Fulani (or Peul) herders and they used the latex sap of the plant Calotropis procera to help curdle the milk. I remember this plant having similar flowers and leaf shape as those of milkweed plants here in North America, and in fact this genus of plants belongs to the same group as the milkweed plants I have been discussing, Asclepiadea. I believe the boiling of the plant helps to remove the toxin before it is added to the milk. Check out this video on the making of this delicious cheese!  Wagashi Cheese Production in Northern Benin - Bing video
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References:
https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/Monarch_Butterfly/migration/index.shtml
​http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/agrawal/2019/12/14/monarchs-and-milkweed-in-madagascar/
​https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=wagasi+cheese&&view=detail&mid=6E94BD0665AD54D85C876E94BD0665AD54D85C87&&FORM=VRDGAR&ru=%2Fvideos%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dwagasi%2Bcheese%26qpvt%3Dwagasi%2Bcheese%26FORM%3DVDRE

​Given my love for bright colors, I adore orioles and have been trying to attract them to my yard for three years. These brilliantly orange and black birds are stunning. In Missouri we have the Baltimore Oriole (Icterus galbula) and the Orchard Oriole (Icterus spurius). Further west you can find Bullock’s Oriole (Icterus bullockii) and in the southwest the Hooded Oriole (Icterus cucullatus), Scott’s oriole (Icterus parisorum), and Audubon's Oriole (Icterus graduacauda). All these birds are brightly colored in shades of orange and yellow along with striking black markings.

​As mentioned, I have been trying to attract Baltimore Orioles to my yard as they migrate through each spring. Last year I was able to entice a couple to stop for a slice of orange and a bit of grape jelly. This past May I was able to attract several more: three to four males and one female arrived in early May and stayed about a week. After they moved on another one or two males and a female stopped by for another week, as well as a young juvenile male. Baltimore Orioles breed in the southern US into southern Canada. During migration, you can attract these birds by proving orange slice, purple grapes and grape jelly. They also like to drink nectar from hummingbird or oriole specific feeders. They seem to prefer hanging out in the tops of trees, but will cautiously come down for a tasty snack. Once used to your feeders, they will become more bold. According to Audubon and Cornell’s bird websites, orioles prefer open woodland and are often found around cities and parks as well as more rural areas. Males have the brightest colors, with females generally being a more washed out orange and yellow coloring and without the bold black markings. Young males (less than 2 years old) have the duller coloration similar to that of a female, but they gain their bright, bold plumage around their second year.  Females weave hanging nests of woven plant material high up in the treetops. Baltimore Orioles make the trip up north relatively short, they usually start migrating back to their wintering grounds around July, so I will be putting our more oranges in July hoping to catch them on their journey back south.

References:
Baltimore Oriole | Audubon Field Guide
​Baltimore Oriole Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
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